I remember watching Roots, the 1977 television series based on Alex Haley’s book - the story of Kunta Kinte, the African man torn from his homeland and chained into slavery. His pain, his pride, his longing for home - all of it seared into my mind. It made me wonder about our own histories here in Malaya: who were the ones who toiled, who wept, who built the land we inherited?
Years later, while presenting a paper on plantation history at an ISP conference, a senior planter stood up during the Q&A. “Joseph,” he said, “you’ve spoken beautifully about European pioneers and Chinese entrepreneurs - and only a little about the Indians in plantations. Perhaps next time, could you also talk more about the South Indian workers — the Tamil labourers - who endured the hardest work of all?”
That question lingered long after the applause faded. Because even after three decades in this industry, I realised how rarely we give voice to those who came before - the nameless, barefoot men and women who tapped rubber, cleared jungles and carried Malaya on their backs.
And then, I remembered my late maternal grandmother.
She used to speak of them in half-whispers - not out of prejudice, but remembrance. Sitting by the window of our old wooden house in Jenjarom, she would chew betel leaf and murmur, “Ah Shek” (my nickname for being fair in complexion), “you don’t know how those Keling suffered.”
The Word and the World Behind It
The word Keling - once a neutral reference to an ancient South Indian kingdom - had, over time, curdled into something coarse, often used as an insult. But in my grandmother’s day, it was said more as description than disdain: a rural shorthand for the Tamil workers who filled the rubber estates, railway camps, and road gangs of British Malaya.
“They worked until their backs bent like old trees,” she said. “Even the rain could not wash their sorrow.”
Through her eyes, I began to see history not as policy or profit, but as people. People like Ravi - a name she often mentioned - a Tamil man who lived behind the estate line-houses, who left his village near Madurai and never saw it again.
The Journey Across the Sea
In the late 1800s, the British discovered that tin and coffee alone could not sustain their ambitions. Rubber - that miraculous sap feeding the world’s hunger for tyres - became their new gold.
The demand for labour was immense. Under the Indian Immigration Ordinance of 1884, recruiters fanned out across South India, promising work, wages, and a better life. Thousands from drought-stricken Tamil Nadu boarded ships bound for Penang, Port Dickson and Teluk Anson.
Many came under the indenture system; others through the kangani network - a chain of obligation that bound entire families to a single estate through debt and kinship.
But when they arrived, they found not paradise, but the relentless rhythm of colonial profit.
The Life on the Estate
Ravi would rise before dawn. He lived in a narrow wooden cubicle, a single oil lamp flickering against the wall. He walked barefoot into the mist, tapping knife in hand, cutting the bark of rubber trees with precision born of desperation. The white latex bled slowly into latex cups, drop by drop - like the measured tears of a forest.
He might have earned around twenty Straits cents a day - but after deductions for rice, salt, oil, rent, and advances, what he actually took home was scarcely half that. Even the doctor’s quinine could be charged to his account. For every day he fell sick, the debt deepened. (To put this in perspective: twenty cents in 1910 equated roughly to RM 12 today - barely enough for a bowl of rice and salt.)
The British planters praised the Tamil labourers as “industrious and docile.” My grandmother had two words - 可怜 (kělián), pitiful; and terpaksa, no choice.
She remembered them lining up at dusk, returning from the fields with their backs slick with sweat, their eyes empty. Some sang softly in Tamil hymns of home. Others sat in silence, their dreams folded away like the small cloth bundles they had carried from India.
Of Love, Loss and Labour
Among the workers was a young girl named Lakshmi. She planted seedlings in the nursery and shared her cooked rice with Ravi. My grandmother recalled seeing them talk by the river, laughing in that shy way only youth knows.
But joy was short-lived on the estates. Lakshmi fell ill - dysentery, they said. Estate hospitals existed, but care was basic; once convalescence ended, rent and ration charges resumed. One morning, she was gone. The kangani said she had been sent home. No one ever heard from her again.
Ravi grew quiet after that. He continued to tap the trees, but his songs faded. The jungle swallowed his laughter.
When I read Roots, I thought of Ravi and Lakshmi. They were not enslaved in chains, but bound by contracts and hunger - their freedom mortgaged to the Empire’s need for rubber.
The Machinery of Exploitation
By the early 1900s, Indian labour had become the backbone of the Malayan plantation economy. They built roads, railways and estates. The kangani acted as middleman, recruiter, and enforcer — controlling wages, advances, and punishments.
The estates became miniature kingdoms. The planter was ruler; the kangani, his steward; the workers, his subjects. The structure ensured compliance, not dignity.
When rubber prices rose, work quotas often increased. When prices fell, wages dropped. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, daily pay on many estates fell to barely twenty cents. Families starved quietly in their cubicles while the latex still dripped faithfully from the trees.
The state records were meticulous: pounds of rubber produced, cost per acre, yield per tapper. But there was no column for broken hearts.
The Weight of a Word
The word Keling haunted me. I began to hear it in the careless banter of childhood - used without thought, stripped of history.
But to my grandmother, it was never casual. It carried the echo of Ravi’s song, the cough of the sickly Lakshmi, the cries of children born in line-houses. She knew some of these people - not as “others,” but as neighbours, fellow sufferers under empire’s great machine.
“Don’t mock them,” she once said. “If not for them, the roads you walk, they would not exist.”
Her wisdom cut through the fog of inherited prejudice. It taught me how language can both wound and redeem - how memory, if tended, can humanise what history forgets.
The Legacy of Survival
After the Second World War, many Tamil families remained. They had known no other home. The estates became communities, their temples small sanctuaries of faith amid alien soil. Their children went to Tamil schools; their grandchildren spoke Malay and English.
They became teachers, clerks, soldiers - no longer “coolies,” but citizens. Yet the shadow of their ancestors’ toil still clings to the soil.
Even today, if you walk through an old rubber estate at dawn, you can almost hear it - the tap of a knife, the drip of latex, the hum of a distant song in a language that carried both prayer and pain.
The Reckoning
When that planter asked his question, I thought of how we in the industry speak so easily of yield, mechanisation and sustainability - but seldom of the ghosts beneath the trees.
The workers were the invisible roots of the plantation world. Without them, Malaya’s economic miracle would never have taken shape. They were not slaves, yet not free; not citizens, yet indispensable.
Their story, like Kunta Kinte’s, is one of dislocation - of people uprooted from their soil, planted elsewhere for the benefit of others.
The Visit Back
Years later, I visited an old estate near Banting. The rubber trees stood like ageing sentinels, their bark scarred from decades of tapping. The line-houses had been replaced by concrete quarters. A Tamil woman swept the yard.
I asked if there was still a cemetery nearby. She nodded and led me to a clearing by the stream. There, among the ferns, were small mounds of earth, unmarked and forgotten. She whispered, “My great-grandfather was from Madras. He died here. Never went home.”
I stood there in silence, thinking of Ravi, of Lakshmi, of all the nameless thousands who came with nothing but faith and hunger. The forest was quiet, save for the faint drip of latex into latex cups - steady, mournful, eternal.
In that sound, I heard both Roots and our own roots - the stories of Indians, Chinese and countless others who came to this land; tales of bondage and resilience, cruelty and grace, exile and endurance. These were not merely migrant journeys, but human odysseys - of men and women who crossed seas, planted hope in foreign soil, and built the foundations of a nation long before we called it home. Their sweat watered the fields of rubber, tin and rice; their hands raised the railways and roads we now take for granted.
To remember them is not to dwell on sorrow, but to recognise that Malaysia’s story - like Roots - is born of pain and persistence, suffering and solidarity, and the quiet, enduring faith that from hardship, dignity can still grow. In truth, one could almost transpose the characters of Roots onto our own soil - replace Kunta Kinte with the Tamil labourer stepping off a steamer in Penang, his chains exchanged for contracts, his homeland fading behind him. The same story of uprooting and endurance unfolds here - not on the plantations of America, but in the humid stillness of Malaya’s rubber estates, where the struggle, the sorrow, and the search for freedom took a quieter, yet equally human form.
And I heard again my grandmother’s trembling voice: “Ah Shek, remember - this land drank many tears before it bore fruit.”
When I left the estate, the sun was setting over the horizon, staining the sky the colour of burnt copper. The trees cast long shadows across the road, and for a brief moment, I imagined I saw them - the silhouettes of men and women in Malaya walking home after a day’s toil, their laughter mingling with the wind.
History may have forgotten their names, but the earth remembers their footsteps. And so must we.
JT
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